Sanitation in Rural India: Progress, Challenges, and the Road Ahead
Sanitation is one of the most basic determining factors of public health, environmental resilience, and human dignity. In rural India, where more than 65% of the population lives, poor sanitation has been a major factor in the spread of disease, malnutrition, and social injustice.
In the last decade, India has launched multiple extensive programs aimed at improving rural sanitation performance. This blog evaluates these achievements through data while identifying current challenges and essential policy directions for sustained rural sanitation development.
1. Institutional Reform and Accelerated Coverage: The Case of the Swachh Bharat Mission
The Swachh Bharat Mission-Grameen (SBM-G) was launched as a new frontier in rural sanitation by the Government of India in 2014. As of 2018, rural sanitation coverage in the country touched 85%, with over 7.4 crore toilets built and over 3.8 lakh villages declared as Open Defecation Free (ODF) during this period. This mission is unique from previous sanitation programs through its focus on behavioral change, community engagement, and outcome-based statistics. The foundation of SBM-G Phase I was used to launch SBM-G Phase II in 2020 to maintain ODF status and promote comprehensive waste management. As of December 2023, over 5 lakh villages had achieved ODF Plus status, indicating the implementation of solid and/or liquid waste management systems.
2. Synergistic Integration with Water Supply: The Role of the Jal Jeevan Mission
The Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) was launched in 2019 to fulfill the water and sanitation interdependence goal by providing tap water access to all rural households before 2024. The target of providing tap water access to 100% of rural households remains active, with 77% coverage achieved so far. Merging SBM-G with JJM has established village-level integrated water sanitation and hygiene (WASH) systems.
3. Binding Constraints: Institutional, Social, and Operational Gaps
Though there have been some significant successes, systemic constraints regarding the sustainability and equity of rural sanitation in India remain. Recent reports state that the long-term sustainability of an ODF status is still a challenge as behavioral changes have not yet been institutionalized, and as a result, some ODF villages have fallen back to practicing open defecation again.
When it comes to infrastructure, while about 5.14 lakh villages have liquid waste management and 4.75 lakh solid waste systems as of December 2024, functionality and consistency vary widely. Fragmented operations and low local capacity result in the services being uncertain and unsustainable. The social and labor immorality of this issue is augmented by sanitation workers, most of whom are from historically marginalized communities and are still suffering the same stigmas and hazardous work environments. Despite being effectively banned under the law, manual scavenging still exists across many regions because of insufficient enforcement and deep-rooted societal malpractices.
The service delivery continues to show significant regional inequalities because states including Jharkhand, Rajasthan, and West Bengal have just around 50% of rural households with access to piped water.
The observed distributional asymmetries demonstrate the urgent need for intervention approaches that match specific contexts and require balanced resource distribution.
4. Emerging Approaches: Innovation and Community Mobilization
India has implemented several innovative and community-based solutions to address the ongoing sanitation problems and improve sustainability. The Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) model demonstrates success as a participatory method that enables behavior change at the local level without financial support to maintain ODF status over time. The Sato Tap represents a technological advancement because this low-cost handwashing device operates without needing a piped water supply to reach off-grid and resource-constrained areas.
In addition, incentive-based recognition programs like the Viksit Bharat Sankalp Yatra have been a catalytic force in encouraging local leadership and enhancing accountability through public recognition of ODF Plus Model Gram Panchayats, thus reinforcing the commitment to sustained sanitation outcomes.
5. Policy Priorities: A Strategic Framework for Sustained Impact
A comprehensive approach must be implemented to maintain and expand sanitation results in rural India. Geospatial systems for tracking functional, sustainable, and equitable service delivery of sanitation infrastructure need to be developed and monitored in real-time. The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) must develop technical and managerial capacity for enabling decentralized planning implementation as well as management of sanitation services.
In addition, long-term behavioral reinforcement campaigns should be run to solidify hygiene as the norm through modifying resistance in context-driven communication. Legal and social protection systems must be established to stop manual scavenging and enforce anti-discrimination laws while protecting the dignity of sanitation workers.
The successful implementation of cost-effective technological innovations at a large scale will be essential to address infrastructure gaps in underserved and resource-constrained areas.
Sustaining Momentum: The Future of Rural Sanitation in India
The rural sanitation transformation in India stands as one of the most extensive public health achievements worldwide. The results obtained through SBM-G and JJM demonstrate how integrated policy design combined with community participation and targeted investment can produce successful outcomes. System resilience and inclusive development need renewed attention because behavioral, institutional, and equity challenges continue to exist.
By addressing persistent challenges and leveraging successful strategies, India can continue to improve the health and well-being of its rural population, setting a global example in sanitation and public health.
Raj Kashyap Das –Knowledge & Insights Coordinator, Sambodhi
